![]() Studies of the topology optimization of morphing wing mechanisms are limited to two-dimensional (2D) models. The work presents the first step towards the systematic design of three-dimensional morphing wing sections. ![]() Numerical results demonstrated that three-dimensional optimized wing sections utilize a more advanced structural layout to enhance structural performance while keeping the morphing functionality better than two-dimensional wing ribs. A trailing edge wing section was designed to validate the proposed optimization approach. Moreover, a feature-mapping approach was utilized to constrain and simplify the actuator geometries. To ensure both structural stiffness with respect to aerodynamic loading and morphing capabilities, the optimization problem was formulated to minimize structural compliance, while the morphing functionality was enforced by constraining a morphing error between the actual and target wing shape. A three-phase material model was employed to represent structural and actuating materials and voids. The actuation was modeled by a linear-strain-based expansion in the actuation material. This work proposes a systematic topology optimization approach for simultaneously designing the morphing functionality and actuation in three-dimensional wing structures.
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